美国的政治参与(稻田麦子)
美国的政治参与：非正式的障碍
不是所有的拥有正式投票资格的人都同样地参加选举。各种各样的文化活动、政治赞助或反对选民参加选举的话动使得大量处于人口各个部分的更高层次的选民参与其中，他们一般都受过较好的教育，有着中等或上等的社会地位和职业，至少有职业，白色人种，共和党人，城市居民，北方人，年纪较大的人，包括日益扩大的已过了退休年龄的选民团体。
具有初等文化程度的选民只有不到一半的人投票，而大学毕业的选民有3/4的人参加选举。同样地，24岁或24岁以下的选民中参加投票的不到40％，而45岁以上的却有大约70％去参加选举。总之，参加选举的选民人数真是令人失望。最近一次总统选举中选民参加人数最多的是1960年，达到64％。到1980年，只有52％的选民参加选举，这是继1948年有51％的选民参加选举以来最低的选民人数。1984年，尽管采取了大量的鼓励注册的措施，参选百分比也只提高了1％。注册登记的选民中大约72％的人出来投票，而1960年是83％。到1988年，选民人数更少，甚至退到了自1924年以来选举总统的选民出席人数的最低点。1990年仅有l/3的选民投票。1992年的选举，由于候选人势均力敌的竞争和佩罗的参与，选民人数一下子发生了巨变：55％的选民参加选举，是近20年中最高的选民投票数。
远远没有总统选举那么光彩眩目的国会议员选举，参选的选民人数很少超过40％到45％。这一数字也没有增长的势头；1990年选民总数是1942年战争时期以来任何一次全国选举中最低的一次。在各州和地方选举中，选民百分比可能会降至20％或者更低，只有在个人之间和意识形态中种族激烈争斗的地方才会出现很少的例外。例如1969年底特律市长竞选，候选人是在一位黑人与一位白人之间竞争，当时的底特律是黑人白人严格分开的城市。各地政治生活中选民参与程度如此之低，这在那些相信最贴近人民的政府才最能顺应民意、最能代表人民利益的人来说似乎自相矛盾。然而，假使有很少的利益，地方政府也有可能陷入腐败和寡头政治之中。
参与程度之低，加上公众对民主原则的支持如此令人沮丧，指出了另外一个矛盾。尽管美国政治舆论一向强烈拥护选民参与选举来保证整个体制及其各届政府的合法性，然而，有相当多的美国人从来不参加选举，更多的人只是参加总统选举。调查研究结果表明，从不参加选举的人几乎对政治体制一无所知，也绝不想弄清楚，不想与这个体制发生任何联系。不参加投票的人认为这个体制是不负责任的，不为他们的利益服务，也提供不出可选择的候选人或政策。支持这些信念的是他们现实生活的环境，低薪，甚或根本没有报酬，极少的教育，由于民族背景或年龄的原因，其社会地位通常很低。由于被社会隔离，绝大多数人甚至也不愿意间接地通过任何形式的压力集团参与选举。
除这些人群外，20世纪60年代后期出现的一代人，尽管他们的薪水不低，受教育程度也高，这群脱离政治或无政治幻想的人，也不怎么参加选举。社会学家多年来对此争论不休，试图找出原因。与此同时，年轻一代选民人数在1972年竞选中大大降低，以后继续减少(这种情况随着最年轻的选民人数的日益缩小会稍有好转)。尽管两大主要党派竭力吸引年轻的选民，80年代选举人数也没有回升，不过一直在40％上下徘徊。
这个体制已无力激发这些群体的参与兴趣是典型的政府失败的表征。从短期效应看，正如一些杰出理论家试图证明的，这些人进入政治生活恐怕会使政治体制不稳定。参选人数的骤增有时会导致缓解经济不平衡计划的失败，或使蛊惑人心的政客赢得竞选。例如1988年共和党总统候选人初选时，许多投票支持马里奥．“帕特“．罗宾逊当总统的选民以前从未参加过选举。他们只是被早先的电视传媒上的福音传教般的狡猾的意识形态宣传所吸引。承认存在这些迫在眉睫的难题不能成为不采取行动解决这些潜在问题的理由。忽视让那些疏离政治的公民继续不介入政治生活这一问题，我们就会在将来付出更大的代价。 美国的政治参与：影响的各种形式
公民可以通过多种渠道施加影响，主要是通过行使选举政府官员的权力。他们可以写信或打电话给他们的代表，尽管这种接触经常涉及到私人问题。他们可以直接影响官员，在竞选运动中的或在官场上的。一般主要是通过利益集团的行为(本书第五章有详细阐述)。基于党派的选举活动则是更公开的渠道，至少应
该是更公开地受到大众的监督和赞助。大约3／5至2／3的人口从事政党或利益集团的活动。个人也可以进一步参与政治活动，他们可以鼓动别人投票或加入政党；大约1／3的人以“舆论领导人”的身份参与类似活动。可是参与更高一层政党活动的人数则大大减少，大约1／5的人参与总统初选，大约1／10的人会赞助钱或花时间参加竞选，或利益集团的活动，或者参加持续的政治工作，只有大约1／20的人堪称为“政党活动家”，只有1／100左右的人才会真正去竞选某个职位。
随着选民百分比的下降，出现了一种重大的阶级差异。社会经济地位低下的人很少做竞选方面的事，为某个候选人或政党做点儿贡献，或谋取个办公室里的职位，更没什么人去竞选了。本世纪以来，美国的领导人已经颇具代表性了，可他们仍然主要来自男性白人，而且还是中上层阶级。到80年代中期，全国49万个选举产生的官员中，讲西班牙语的美国人只占0．5％，黑人占1．3％，妇女占1．5％。其它群体的利益也没有得到体现。尽管80年代末和90年代初，取得了很大的进展。比如说，各州立法机构中妇女任职比例增长已超过10％，到1993年增至20％。少数民族在政府机关里的任职比例也有所增长，但仍远远不能说是充分代表。理论上讲，任何人都可以当选，面现实中，要实现这一点还需要做出许多努力。 1988年牧师杰西．杰克逊颇具戏剧性的竞选活动预示着将来有可能发生变化。他有能力吸引众多黑人团体以外的支持者，这使他成为一个民主党派候选人的强有力竞争对手。很多观察家相信他的候选提名是美国政治史上的分水岭。然而1992年，3名主要候选人(共和党、民主党和一名自称独立的候选人)仍是清一色的男性白人公民。
人民能够掌权吗?
从一个方面看，民主意谓着大多数人民赞成他们的政府。在某些方面，这种观点似乎大概括了。几乎所有的社会都可以说成是民主社会，因为任何政府只要能生存下去，就一定是在某种程度上取得了公众的拥戴。要求更高一点的话，还需要这个体制中要有某种与人民协商的机制，这种协商应该基于双方自愿，而不是单方面提供的施舍。这通常可通过定期的竞选来实现。当然，最终决定这样具有竞争性选举的胜利者的主要原则必须是多数派原则。无论从哪个角度讲，少数派原则不能称得上是民主。所以在美国，对民主的透析自然而然地变成了探求多数派裁定机制，以决定谁将掌权，并怎样运用权力。
USA political participation (rice paddy wheat)
USA political participation: Unofficial barrier
Is not the human which all has the official voting qualifications all similarly participates in the election. Various cultural activity, the political support or among opposed the voter participates in the voter which the election the speech moves causes massively to be in population each part of higher level to participation, they all have received the good education generally, has medium or the superior social position and the occupation, has the occupation at least, the white race, the Republican Party people, the city peoples, the northerner, the age big person, including expanded day by day crossed the retirement age voter association.
Has the primary years of schooling voter then not to a half person voting, but the university graduates the voter has 3/4 person to participate in the election. Similarly, 24 year old of or in 24 year old of below voter participates in the voting not to 40%, but 45 year old of above has probably 70% to participate in the election actually. In brief, the participation election voter population really is disappointing. What recently in a presidential election the voter number of people taking part were most was in 1960, achieved 64%. To 1980, only then 52% voter participate in the election, since this has been continues in 1948 to have 51% voter to participate in the election the lowest voter population. In 1984, although has taken the massive encouragements registration measure, the announce candidacy percentage also only enhanced 1%. In the registration registration voter the about 72% person come out the voting, but 1960 was 83%. To 1988, the voter population were less, even has drawn back to has elected president since 1924 the voter number of persons present perigee. In 1990 only had l/3 the voter voting. 1992 election, because candidate's evenly matched competition and wears Luo's participation, the voter population has had the great change all of a sudden: 55% voter participate in the election, is in the nearly 20 years the highest voter throws numbers..
Does not have member of national assembly which the presidential election that brilliance dazzles to elect by far, the announce candidacy voter population very little surpasses 40% to 45%. This numeral also does not have the growth the tendency; Since in 1990 the voter total has been in 1942 the war time in any national election lowest. In various states and in the local election, the voter percentage possibly can fall to 20% or is lower, only then and in the ideology the race intense battle place only then can have the very few exceptions between individual. For example in 1969 Detroit mayor campaigned for, the candidate was competes in a black with a Caucasian between, then Detroit was the black Caucasian strict separated city. In each place politics life the voter participates in the degree being so low, this in these believed most draws close to people's government only then most to be able to comply with the public opinion, most can say on behalf of the people's benefit person as if self-contradictorily. However, if has the very few benefits, the local authority also has the possibility to fall into in the corruption and the oligarchy.
Participation degree low, in addition public was so depressed to the principle of democracy support, has pointed out other contradiction. Although the American politics public opinion always intensely supports the voter to participation elects guarantees the entire system and its each session of governments' validity, however, has quite many Americans always not to participate in the election, more people only participate in the presidential election. The investigation and study result indicated, ever does not participate in the election the human knows nothing about nearly to the political system, also does not want to clarify, does not want to have any relation with this system. Does not participate in the voting the human thought this system is irresponsible, does not
serve for theirs benefit, also cannot provide the candidate or the policy which may choose. Supports these faith is their real life environment, the low salary, even basic does not have the reward, the extremely few educations, as a result of the national background or the age reason, its social position very are usually low. Because is isolated by the society, the overwhelming majority person is not even willing indirectly to participate in the election through any form pressure group. Besides these crowds, a generation of person which the 20th century 60's later period appears, although their wage is not low, is been also high the education level, this group is separated from the human which politics or does not have the political fantasy, how also not participates in the election. The sociologist for many years regarding this has debated unceasingly, attempts to discover the reason. At the same time, the younger generation voter population campaigned for in 1972 reduces greatly, later will continue to reduce (this kind of situation to reduce day by day along with youngest voter population can have change for the better slightly). Although two big main parties and groups attract the young voter by might and main, the 80's elections population has not risen again, but paces back and forth continuously about 40%.
This system incapably stimulated these communities the participation interest is the typical government defeat attribute. Looking from the short-term effect, just like some outstanding theoreticians attempt to prove, perhaps these people enter the political life to be able to cause the political system not to be unstable. The announce candidacy population increases suddenly sometimes can cause to alleviate the defeat which the economy not balanced plans, or causes the politician which poisons people's minds to win the campaign. When for example in 1988 Republican Presidential candidate primary election, many votings supports Mario
US'S political participation: Influence each kind of form
The citizen may exert the influence through the many kinds of channels, mainly is through exercises the election government official's authority. Assorted
May write a letter or telephone for theirs representative, although this kind of contact involves frequently to the personal question. They may affect the official directly, in election campaign or in government. Mainly is generally (this book fifth chapter has detailed elaboration) through special interest group's behavior. Based on parties' and groups' election then is the public channel, should be at least publicly receives populace's surveillance and the support. About 3/is engaged in the political party or special interest group's activity 5 to 2/3 population. Individual also may further participate in the political activity, they may agitate others voting or join the political party; About 1/3 people by
Along with
Looking from an aspect that, the democracy signifies the majority people to approve their government. In certain aspects, this viewpoint summarized as if greatly. Nearly all societies all may talk into are the democratic societies, because any government so long as can survive gets down, certainly was has obtained public's supporting in some kind of degree. Request higher speech, but also needs in this system to have to have some kind the mechanism which consults with the people, this kind of consultation should be voluntary based on both sides, but is not the bestowment which provides unilaterally. This usually may realize through the regular campaign. Certainly, finally decided like this has the competitive election victor's main principle must be the majority principle. Which angle regardless of says from, the minority faction principle cannot call on is the democracy. Therefore in US, turned naturally to the democracy dialysis sought the majority to rule the mechanism, by decided who will be in power, and how utilized the authority.