第六讲 语言、文化与翻译
1. 中西语言文化差异
6.1.1 中西语言差异
英语言属于印欧语系，是拼音文字，“以形表意”，主要靠形合（hypotaxis）成篇,强调形式和功能；汉语属于汉藏语系，是表意文字，“以意统形”，主要靠意合（parataxis）成篇，强调逻辑关系与意义关联。
①我常见许多青年朋友，②聪明用功，③成绩优异，④而语文程度不足以达意，⑤甚至写一封信亦难得通顺，⑥问其故则曰其兴趣不在语文方面。（梁实秋《学问与兴趣》）
①I have come across a great many young friends, ②bright and diligent, ③do exceedingly well in studies, ④but they are rather weak in Chinese, ⑤even can’t write a smooth Chinese letter.⑥When asked why, they’ll say they are not interested in Chinese.（梁实秋《学问与兴趣》）
I have come across a great many bright and diligent young friends who have done exceedingly well in studies, but they are rather weak in Chinese. They can’t write a letter in correct Chinese. When I ask them why, they always say they are not interested in the Chinese language.
句子类型：
英语和汉语的句子按功能分为：陈述句、感叹句、祈使句和疑问句；按结构分为单句（simple sentence）和复句(multiple sentence)。
汉语复句按关系主要分为：因果、并列、转折复句。
英语复句分为并列句（compound sentence）和复合句（complex sentence）。英语的基本句型有7种：
1. S+V
2. S+V+O
3. S+V+C
4. S+V+P
5. S+V+O (indirect) +O (direct)
6. S+V+O+C
7. S+V+O+Ad
英汉篇章比较：
篇章（text）是表达整体概念的语义单位。衔接性和连贯性是篇章最重要的特征。
1. 信息结构：篇章最主要的功能是信息功能，借助句子信息结构体现。句子里，
先说的词语是主位（theme），后说的词语是述位(rheme)，主位—述位（theme-rheme）结构就是句子的信息结构，它是作者思维方式的反映。当句子成分既是已知信息又处于主位时，它便是主题(topic),句子的其余部分便是述题(comment)。汉语是主题显著（topic-prominent）语言，句子强调意义和功能，建构在意念主轴(thought-pivot)上；英语是主语显著语言，句子重形式和功能，建构在主谓主轴(subject-predicate-pivot)上。
2. 衔接手段：分为指称衔接、结构衔接、词汇衔接和语音衔接。
1）指称衔接(referential cohesion)：汉语不太在意主语，中国人的思维方式又
比较隐含曲折，所以常出现零式指称（zero-anaphoric）现象；英语中主语不可缺少，英美人的思维方式比较简单直接，所以指称衔接很常用。
2）结构衔接(structural cohesion): 通过主位—述位结构、替代(substitution)、
省略(omission)、对偶(antithesis)、排比(parallelism)、对照(contrast)、回环(palindrome) 、层递(climax) 、反复(repetition)等修辞格实现。
①我仍旧站在那棵柿子树下，望着树梢上那个孤零零的小火柿子。②它
那红得透亮的色泽，依然给人一种喜盈盈的感觉。③可是我却哭了。④哭那陌生的，但却疼爱我的卖灶糖的老汉。
① I stood under the persimmon tree, looking at the lone little persimmon.②
Its flaming redness was a joyous sight.③ But I cried. ④ I cried for the strange old candy peddler who had been so fond of me.
虚心使人进步，骄傲使人落后。
Modesty helps one go forward, whereas conceit makes one lay behind.
燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再
开的时候。但是，聪明的，你告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？ Swallows fly away, and they will return; willows wither, and they will
burgeon; peach-blossom fades, and they will afresh. But tell me, you who are wise, why do our days have departed and never returned.
我为人人，人人为我。（回环）
One for all, all for one.
①一年，两年，三年，你的望眼欲穿；②一年，两年，三年，我的归心
似箭。
Year after year you have been looking forward with eager expectation to my
home-coming; year after year I’ve been looking forward with great anxiety to returning home.
3）词汇衔接(lexical cohesion): 分为重复和搭配(collocation)。词的重复可以
是相同的词、同近义词、上下义词等。
6.1.2 中西文化差异
中英思维方式的不同：
伦理 (ethics) 与认知 (cognition) 2) 整体(integrity)、综合性 (synthetic) 思维与个体(individuality)、分析性(analytic) 3）直觉(intuition)与实证(evidence) 4) 形象思维(figurative thinking)与逻辑思维(logical thinking) 5）隐含曲折(indirect)与简单直接（direct）
Cultural Patterns
Dominant American Cultural Patterns
Individualism: the doctrine that each individual is unique, special, completely different from all other individuals, and the basic unit of nature. It manifests itself in individual “Pull yourself up by your own bootstraps.”), (“Do your own thing.”), (“The Squeaky wheel gets the grease.), and privacy (“A man’s house is his castle.”). Individualism dominates American culture. Where be in sexual, social, or ethical matters, the self for Americans hold the pivotal position. So strong is this notion that some Americans believe that there is something wrong with someone who fails to demonstrate individualism.
Equality:
Americans believe that all people have a right to succeed in life and that the state,
through laws and educational opportunities, should ensure that right. Equality is emphasized in everything from government (everyone has the right to vote) to social relationships (“Just call me by my first name”). The value of equality is prevalent in both primary and secondary social relationships. Most of the primary social relationships within a family tend to advance equality rather than hierarchy. Formality is not important, and children are often treated as adults. In secondary relationships, most friendships and coworkers are also treated as equals. The value of equality in American social relationships often creates communication problems in intercultural settings. Americans like to treat others equal and choose to be treated in the same manner when they interact in school, business, or social environments. People from the cultures that have rigid, hierarchical social structures often find it disconcerting to work with Americans.
Materialism
For most Americans, materialism has always been an integrated part of life. They consider it almost a right to be materially well-off and physically comfortable, and they often judge a person by their material possessions. They often ridicule the person who is not driven by material objects. They expect to have swift and convenient transportation—preferably controlled by themselves—a large variety of foods at our disposal, clothes for every occasion, and comfortable homes equipped with many labor-saving devices. .In the American metaphysic, reality is always material reality. Competition
Competition is part of an American’s life from early childhood on. As the proverb says, a horse never runs so fast as when he has other horses to catch up and outpace. In sports and at work, they are told the importance of being “the number one.” Competition is yet another pattern that often causes problems for Americans when they interact with people who do not support this value. When confronted with individuals with a competitive drive, the French, Japanese and our Chinese may interpret them as being antagonistic, ruthless, and power-hungry. We may feel threatened, and overreact or withdraw from the discussion.
Hofstede’s Value Dimensions
Hofstede has identified 4 value dimensions that have a significant impact on behavior in all cultures.
Individualism-Collectivism:
In cultures that tend toward individualism, such as the United States, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, the Netherlands, and New Zealand, an “I” consciousness prevails: competition rather than cooperation is encouraged; personal goals take precedence over group goals; people tend not to be emotionally dependent on organizations and institutions; and every individual has the right to his or her private property, thoughts, and opinions. These cultures stress individual initiative and achievement, and they value individual decision-making.
Collectivism is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups. Collectivism means greater emphasis on: (a) the views, needs, and goals of the in-group rather than oneself; (b) social norms and duty defined by the in-group rather than behavior to get pleasure; (c) beliefs shared with the in-group rather than beliefs that distinguishes self from in-group; and (d) great readiness to cooperate with in-group members. In collective societies, such as in Pakistan, Colombia, China and Japan, people are born into extended families or clans that support and protect them in exchange fro their loyalty. A “we” consciousness prevails: identity is based on the social system; organizations invade private life and the clans to which individuals belong; and individuals trust group decisions. Traits such as indirect communication, face-saving, concern fro others, and group cooperation are linked to the collective orientation.
When thrust into a situation that demands a decision, people from individualistic cultures are often at odds with people from collective cultures. At the negotiating table, differences in this dimension can clearly cause serious conflict. Individual responsibility for making decisions is easy in individualistic cultures; in group-oriented cultures this can be different. Americans too often expect their Japanese counterparts to make decisions right at the negotiating table, and the Japanese are constantly surprised to find individual members of the American team promoting their own positions, decisions, and ideas, sometimes openly contradicting
one another.
Uncertainty Avoidance
Uncertainty and avoidance indicate the extent to which a culture feels threatened by or anxious about uncertainty and ambiguous situations.
High-uncertainty-avoidance cultures try to avoid uncertainty and ambiguity by providing stability for their members, establishing more formal rules, not tolerating deviant ideas and behaviors, seeking consensus, and believing in absolute truths and the attaintment of expertise. People think of the uncertainty inherent in life as a continuous hazard that must be avoided. There is a strong need for written rules, planning, regulations, rituals, and ceremonies, which add structure to life. Nations with a strong uncertainty-avoidance tendency are Portugal, Greece, Peru, Belgium, China, and Japan,
In low-uncertainty-avoidance cultures, such as Sweden, Peru, Belgium, Ireland, Norway, the United States, Finland, etc., people tolerate unusual and prize initiative, dislike the structure associated with hierarchy, are more willing to take risks, are more flexible and more dependent on themselves, generalists, and common sense. To them, life should be a dance, not a race.
Differences in this dimension affect intercultural communication. In a negotiation session involving members from both groups, high-certainty-avoidance members would most likely want to move at a rather slow pace and ask for a great amount of detail and planning. There would also be differences in the level of formality with which each culture would feel comfortable. The negotiation process would see differences in the level of risking taking on each side.
Power Distance
The dimension deals with the extent to which a society accepts that power in relationships, institutions, and organizations is distributed unequally.
In high-power-distance countries, such as India, Brazil, Singapore, China, Greece, Mexico, etc., believe that power and authority are facts of life. Social hierarchy is prevalent and institutionalizes inequality. In schools that are characterized by high-power-distance patterns, children seldom interrupt the teacher, show great
reverence and respect for authority, and ask very few questions. In organizations, you find a greater centralization of power, a large proportion of supervisory personnel, and a rigid value system that determines the worth of each job.
Low-power-distance countries such as Austria, Finland, Denmark, Norway, New Zealand, and Israel hold that inequality in society should be minimized. People in such cultures believe that they are close to power and should have access to that power subordinates consider superiors to be the same kind of people as they are, and superiors perceive their subordinates the same way. The powerful and the powerless try to live in concert.
Masculinity and Femininity
Hall’s High Context and Low Context Culture
High context culture（高语境文化）is one in which less has to be said or written because more of the meaning is in the physical environment or already shared by people are labeled high context. In high context cultures such as Native Americans, Latin Americans, Japanese, Chinese, and Korean, people are very homogeneous with regard to experiences, information networks, and the like. In high context cultures, information is provided through gestures, face expressions, the use of space, and even silence. Meaning is also conveyed through status (age, sex, education, family background, title) and through individual’s informal friends and associates.（在高语境文化中，在人们交际时，有较多的信息量或者蕴涵在社会文化环境和情景中，或者内化于交际者的心中；相对地讲，明显的语码则负载较少的信息量。这也意味着，在强交际环境文化的人们对微妙的环境提示较为敏感。）
Low context culture（低语境文化） is one in which little of the meaning is determined by the context because the mass of the message is vested in the explicit code. In such kind of cultures (German, Swiss, and American), each time people interact with others they need detailed background information because of the lack of a large pool of common experiences.
（在低语境文化中，交际过程中所产生的信息量的大部分由显性的语码负载，相对地讲，只有少量的信息蕴涵在隐性的环境和情景中。这也意味着，在低语境文
化中的人们习惯用语言本身的力量来进行交际。）
This characteristic manifests itself in a host of ways. The Asian mode of communication is often indirect and implicit, whereas Western communication tends to be direct. Westerners are more prone to making very explicit statements and have little capability with nonverbal forms of expression. They feel uncomfortable with the vagueness and ambiguity often associated with limited data. And even people in high-context culture perceive how-context people as less credible. As the Indonesian proverb states, “Empty cans clatter the loudest.”
日本茶道是道教传统的反映，崇尚精神高于物质，崇尚繁忙生活中的安宁。茶道在和谐的音乐中把主人和客人联系在一起。此处无声胜有声。一切尽在共同的经历，一切尽在茶室，插花，书法，瓷器之中。茶道是高语境的典型例子。而在低语境中人们会说“快点，喝杯茶！”茶中没有共同的经历可分享。
Influences of Culture
Culture about Food and Pet
We typically categorize domesticated animal life: probably into animals use for food, animals used for sport and recreation, and pets. Most of us see puppies in the category of pet for which we have learned to relate warm, loving feelings. Puppies are cute, cuddly, warm, loving creatures. We see dogs as food. But Americans feel confused at eating dogs? They are pets, not food! It all depends on where you categorize them. Dogs are pets in some cultures and food in others. In the Arab world, dogs are acceptable as watchdogs and as hunting dogs but are not kept in the home as pets because they are seen as unclean and a low form of life. To call someone a dog is an insult among Arabs.
People in most cultures have strong ideas about which foods are acceptable for human consumption and which are not. People in some countries think the custom in the United States of eating corn on the cob is disgusting because that food is fit only for pigs. The Ukrainian favorite food salo, raw pig fat with black bread and vodka, might cause nausea in some, as would knowing that horse meat from California is served in restaurants in Belgium, France, and Japan.
Your reaction of disgust is a culturally learned interpretation and that interpretation
can be quite strong. In 1989, California made it a misdemeanor for any person to sell, buy, or accept any animal traditionally kept as a pet with the intent of killing the animal for food. More recently, animal rights groups have protested the sale of live animals, such as turtles, frogs, lobsters, crabs, fish, and chicken, for food at Asian-American markets. Asian tradition is that fresh meat is tastier and more healthful, that the best meat is that “that enters your house still breathing.” Animal rights activists contend that the animals are treated inhumanely in the shops and are killed in ways that cause them unnecessary pain. Asian-American groups argue that eating dogs and cats is an extreme rarity among Southeast Asian immigrants and call the law and the animal rights activists racist.
In some cultures, parts of some animals are categorized as medicine. In other cultures, certain animals are considered sacred and would certainly not be eaten. The Hindu elephant-headed God Ganesh is accompanied by a rat whenever he travels. Rats, like cows, are deified in India. No Hindu worship is complete without an offering to Ganesh and his companion, the rat. Rats are fed and rarely killed in India.
Culture and Family
There exists the cause-and-effect relationship between growing up in one’s family and the manner in which one perceives and interacts with other people. As the Swedish proverb tells us, “Children act in village as they have learned at home.” Gender Roles
Children first learn about appropriate gender roles from their own family. Early in life, they learn to differentiate between masculine activities and feminine ones. These perceptions are learned and influence how members of a culture interact with both sexes. In cultures such as the Japanese, Chinese, and Korean: “Confucianism made men alone the structurally relevant members of the society and relegated women to social dependence.” Even today, in Asian families, males are primarily responsible fro task functions, while females attend to social and cultural tasks. There is even a Chinese saying that states, “Strict father, kind mother.” In Mexican culture, in India, and in Arab culture, males are also considered the superior sex. Men make most of the important decisions, inheritance is through the male line, and a woman lives in her
husband’s village after marries.
Individualism-Collectivism
Individualism and collectivism are learned through the family, which teaches children whom they must obey and who the dominant figures are in their life. In the Arab world, children learn that god controls them and must be listened to. In the United States, children learn to answer mainly to themselves or their parents. Cultures that foster individualism offer less support to the child, and he or she must quickly learn to be self-reliant. In collective families, such as in India, people share property, all material possessions, food, work and love, perform religious rituals together, and often live under the same roof. Whereas in the United States, one might say, “I will achieve mainly because of my ability and initiative,” the emphasis in Mexico on family attachment leads the Mexican to say, “I will achieve mainly because of my family, and for my family, rather than for myself. The nuclear family also expects that at a certain age, children will move out of the house and establish their own households. In the extended family, this does not hold: several generations may live in the same dwelling and depend on one another financially. While learning self-reliance and responsibility, the child is also being taught the meaning of loyalty. In the extended families loyalty extends beyond the immediate family of parents and siblings to include grandparents, aunts, uncles, and even godparents. The Japanese hold loyalty in the highest esteem. The Chinese family also takes this approach of loyalty. Traditionally Chinese children felt a lifelong obligation to their parents, exemplified by an unreserved devotion to please them in every possible way. In a culture such as that of the United State, loyalty is generally confined to the immediate family.
Age
The family is also the first instruction to introduce the child to the notion of age-grading, an important perceptual attribute that greatly influences the way individuals perceive youth as well as old age. The dominant American culture prefers youth to old age, but respect for the elderly is taught in most Asian cultures. In Arab cultures, children are often taught to kiss the hand of older people when they are
introduced to them, to be polite in the presence of elders, and to stand up and offer
them their seats. Young people are encouraged to listen to and to learn from their
elders. And the hierarchy associated with age in China is rather clear. After the father,
the eldest male has most of the authority.
2． 语言文化对翻译的影响
6．2. 1. 蕴含意义的理解与表达
两种语言之间的可译性是由指称意义的基本对等决定的。但是，词语的指称意义
具有一词多义现象，而且，指称意义往往衍生出蕴含意义。英汉词义的差异很大，
主要表现为：
1) 指称意义相同，蕴含意义不同。岁寒三友：松、梅、竹；goat
2） 指称意义和蕴含意义都不同。
一词多义使语言丰富多彩，属语言的普遍规律。这却必然对理解和表达造成困难。
问题的解决必须依赖语境。语境凌驾于一切因素，优先于规则、理论和基本意义。
因此，翻译时，决不能死扣字典，而是结合语境，细致观察、认真分析，才能恰
如其分地理解和表达意义。蕴含意义在翻译中至关重要，主要指词语内含的情感
意义和联想意义，是词语的隐含意义。
它反映民族特有的思维方式和社会文化，在不同语言中差异迥然。月亮：团圆、
爱情、故乡；moon：反复无常、阴森恐怖，月圆之夜魔鬼现身。玉：珍贵、高
洁，女性名； jade：荡妇。语言的魅力和表现力得益于词语丰富的蕴含意义，
而不同的社会文化环境导致了相同词语各具特色的蕴含意义。译者应该在深谙两
种语言和文化的基础上，尽可能地忠实表现原文的蕴含意义，真正做到达意传神。
蕴含意义主要表现在修辞色彩、文体特征、文化内涵等方面，对习语的翻译影响
深远。
1. 修辞色彩：集中体现在习语中。汉语习语包括：俗语、成语、歇后语等，英
译中应该尽量反映原文独特的文化信息和审美价值。
宝钗笑道：“不用问，狗嘴里还有象牙不成！”
“I don’t have to ask. One doesn’t expect ivory from a dog’s mouth.” Pao-chai said
with a smile.
去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯
白费蜡。（曲波《林海雪原》）
We had no confidence in today’s ambush because we were sure he had escaped last
night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.
以上两例用直译法：人类共性思维，可以跨越语言障碍
……只因生得妩媚风流，满学中都送了两个外号：一个叫“香怜”，一个叫“玉
爱”。
（曹雪芹《红楼梦》）
But on account of their good looks and charm they were nicknamed Sweetie and
Lovely.
（杨宪益、戴乃迭）
…because of their glamorous looks and affected manners, were universally known by
the nickname of Darling and Precious. (David Hawkes)
此例用诙谐、地道的英文昵称，放弃了人名音译的习惯。
2. 文体特征：庄重与诙谐、文雅与通俗，要拿捏得当。“王夫人”，“周瑞家的”
对称谓的翻译应该既切合人物身份又忠实传递其蕴含意义。
3. 文化内涵：汉语中的颜色词、叠词、数词等往往也具有丰富的蕴含意义，其
内涵特殊。
湖色越远越深，由近到远，是银白、淡蓝、深青、墨绿，非常分明。
Farther still, the lake water seems darker, changing from silver white near at hand,
through light blue, deep blue, finally to dark green, all being very distinct.
他身材增加了一倍；先前的紫色的圆脸，已经变作灰黄，而且加上了很深的皱纹。
He had grown to twice his former size. His round face, crimson before, had become
sallow and acquired deep lines and wrinkles. （鲁迅《故乡》，杨宪益、戴乃迭译）
颜色词在语言中的运用不仅可以贴切逼真地描摹出客观物质世界的绚丽景象，还
能恰到好处地反映出语言使用者的内心情感世界，给读者以审美享受。
均衡美的审美心理反映在语言中就是汉语讲求音节的对称，出现了大量的叠词。
叠词的蕴含意义主要是表情功能和美感功能。叠词的使用能使语言更具有表现力
和感染力，生动活泼，节奏感很强。
月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的轻雾浮起在荷塘里，叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。（朱自清《荷塘月色》） Moonlight cascaded like water over the locus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.
水是怎样地开心呵，她将那可怜的失路的小红叶儿，推推挤挤地推到一个漩涡里，使他滴滴溜溜地打圆圈儿；那叶向前不得，向后不得，急得几乎哭出来；水笑嘻嘻地将手一松，他才一溜烟地逃走了。
How happy the water is! At first she pushes and elbows the pitiful misled maple leaf into a water whirl, making it rapidly swirl in circle. There the leaf can neither move forward nor backward. Being too worried, it nearly bursts out crying. It is only when the water loses her grip grinningly that the little maple leaf gets swiftly away.
在我们的左面，住有一家砍砍柴，卖卖菜，人家死人或娶亲，去帮帮忙跑跑腿的人家。
Residing on our left was a family that cut firewood when there was firewood to cut and peddled vegetables when there were vegetables to peddle, or when there were funerals or weddings going on they’d offer to do legwork.（郁达夫《我的梦，我的青春》，刘士聪译）
汉语中的一些数字具有极言其多或极言其少的蕴含意义。“一毛不拔”，“将军百战死，壮士十年归”，“万水千山总是情”“百万雄师过大江”，“十八层地狱”，“孙悟空七十二变”，“三十六计走为上计”等。
……三十六家花酒店，七十二座管弦楼。
…the countless taverns and music halls. （吴敬梓《儒林外史》，杨宪益、戴乃迭译） ……可凭栏品茗，八面来风，即便三伏天，这茶居也是一片清凉世界。
…Here you can sip tea with the pleasant breeze from all directions. Even in the hottest days of the year, the tea stall is still a place for refreshment.
……两块肩胛骨高高凸出，印成一个阳文的“八”字。
…and his shoulder blades stuck out so sharply, an inverted V seemed stamped there.
（鲁迅《药》，杨宪益、戴乃迭译）
6.2.2语境与蕴含意义
语境决定着词语蕴含意义的理解和表达，这是翻译中有解决的关键问题。只有这样，才能得出“功能相似，意义相符”的译文。
语境分为：语言语境、文化语境和情景语境
2.2.1 语言语境对翻译的影响
语言语境指上下文，即词、短语、语句或者篇章的前后关系。具体而言，是词的搭配关系（collocation）和词在句子或者语篇中的位置。正如Firth所言, You shall know a word by the company it keeps. 处在特殊搭配关系中的多义词，其义项就会明朗化，它有助于多义词的辨析。
“红包”：gift money, bonus, bribes.
…..路上浮尘早已刮净，剩下一条洁白的大道来，车夫也跑得更快。
By now the loose dust had all been blown away, leaving the roadway clean and the rickshaw man quickened his pace. （鲁迅《一件小事》，杨宪益、戴乃迭译） 所以，词典不可缺，但不能盲从。
身体好，学习好，工作好。
Keep fit, study well and work hard.
从她的言语中可以看出她对前夫始终怀有一种复杂的感情。
Judging from what she said, she always had mixed feelings for her ex-husband.
洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；发呆的时候，便从木然的双眼前过去。
The day flows away in the sink when washing our hands, wears off in the bowl when eating our meals, and passes away in our daydream when staring blankly. （朱自清《匆匆》，朱纯深译）
原文通过刻意重复来营造韵律，增强力度，以达到修辞效果。但是，英语中同一词组的反复出现很少见，所以译文采用译入语的审美模式，运用三个同义词组来传神达意，使得美感功能和信息功能对等。
《天下第一鼓——陕北安塞腰鼓》
The Majestic Ansai Waist Drum Dance of Northern Shaanxi
但我相信，那种哀怨的无声诉说，一定是一种生命的绝唱！
Yet I believe those plaintive silent words must be a masterpiece singing the praises of life!
我接着便有许多话，想要连珠一般涌出……但又觉得被什么当着似的，单在脑子里回旋，吐不出口外去。（鲁迅《故乡》）
a) There were so many things then to talk about that I wanted to spew them out like a string of beads… But something seemed to hold me back. Everything just swirled around in my head and I couldn’t get the words out.（杨宪益、戴乃迭1956年译文）
b) After this there were so many things I wanted to talk about, they should have poured out like a string of beads… But I was tongue-tied, unable to put all I was thinking into words.
（杨宪益、戴乃迭1980年译文）
2.2.2 文化语境对翻译的影响
文化语境是制约语义的重要的非语言语境之一，主要包括话语使用者的主观因素（心里、情感、意图）、宏观的社会背景（时代、阶级、民族、习俗、政治、文化、经济）等。
布衣蔬食
a) wear clothes of cotton and eat vegetables
b) wear coarse clothes and eat simple food
“那么，过一会爸爸趴在地上当马，让你骑上玩打仗，好不好？撒谎是小狗。”老纪说。
“Well then, what if I serve as a horse on the floor while you ride on me and play being a knight?” replied Lao Ji. “If I don’t keep my word, I’ll be damned!”
抓大放小：to invigorate large enterprises while releasing control over small ones 老少边穷：old revolutionary base areas, frontier areas, poverty-stricken areas and areas inhabited by national minorities
你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我好心好意劝你，到粘到我身上来了。
（周而复《上海的早晨》）
Don’t snap and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my
advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me. 你要是做了陈世美，千人骂万人唾的！
If you want to act like Chen Shimei, who abandoned his wife for another woman, the people will scorn you and spit in your face!
浓茶：strong tea
浓墨：thick ink
浓烟：dense smoke
治国：administer a country
治家：manage a househood
治水：tame rivers
治病：cure disease
茶馆：tea house
照相馆：photo studio
美术馆：art gallery
展览馆：exhibition hall
科技馆：science and technology center
打的：take a taxi
打水：fetch water
打井：sink/dig a well
打圆场：mediate a dispute
打毛衣：knit a woolen sweater
打农药：spray insecticide
打篮球：play basketball
基本建设：capital construction
基本工资：basic wage
基本设施：infrastructure
基本工业：primary industry
基本物质：essential commodity
基本利益：fundamental interest
经济法制化：manage economic affairs within a legal framework 经济全球化：economic globalization
社会知识化：build a knowledge-driven society
国际关系民主化：the practice of democracy in international economy 国际经济信息化：build an information-based national economy 科研成果产业化：apply scientific research results to industrial production